Decorative Interiors: Wall Paintings, Gilding, Panelling and Historic Finishes

A conservation guide to the decorative surfaces and fittings of historic interiors: wall paintings, historic paint and limewash, gilding, panelling, carving, plasterwork and furniture. It covers how they deteriorate, how to protect them during building work, and when to call a conservator.

Building Restoration Index — Technical Library. By Paul Stenning and Mike Walters, Historic Buildings Advisors, Tuscan Foundry Products.

What makes an interior significant

An interior’s significance often lies as much in its surfaces as in its structure. Decoration records changing taste, wealth and use, and early layers may be centuries older than what you see today.

• Wall paintings: medieval and later painted schemes in churches and houses, often hidden under limewash.
• Historic paint and limewash: layers that show how rooms were coloured over time.
• Gilding: on frames, cornices, ceilings, furniture and church fittings.
• Panelling and carving: oak and pine panelling, carved screens, overmantels and staircases.
• Plasterwork: cornices, ceilings and enriched mouldings. See our guide to lime plaster and decorative plasterwork.
• Fixtures and furniture: fitted furniture, fireplaces, wallpapers and textiles that belong to the room.

Finding what survives

Before redecorating, stripping or replastering a historic interior, find out what survives beneath the current finishes.

• Paint research. A paint researcher takes small samples and examines the layers under a microscope to establish the sequence of decoration and original colours.
• Uncovering trials. Small, controlled windows opened by a conservator can show whether wall paintings or earlier schemes survive under limewash or paint.
• Documentary research. Old photographs, inventories and accounts can show earlier decoration.
• Recording. Photograph and record surviving decoration before any work starts.

Paint research is often required as part of a Listed Building Consent application for significant interiors, and it can save money by showing what doesn’t need to be stripped.

Wall paintings

Wall paintings are among the most vulnerable historic surfaces: once lost, they cannot be replaced.

• Threats. Damp and salts from failing rainwater goods or high ground levels, cement plasters and renders, impermeable paints, condensation, and physical damage during building work.
• Don’t clean, consolidate or repaint a wall painting yourself. Even gentle cleaning can remove fragile paint.
• Don’t remove limewash to look for paintings without a conservator. Uncovering is a skilled and slow process.
• Control the environment. Most deterioration is driven by moisture. Fixing the source of damp is the most important conservation measure.
• Protect during works. Paintings near scaffolding, electrical work or heating installation need protection designed by a conservator.

In churches, wall paintings are covered by the faculty system, and the DAC will usually expect an accredited wall painting conservator.

Historic paint and limewash

Traditional interior finishes such as limewash, distemper and linseed oil paint behave differently from modern emulsions, and they should usually be maintained with compatible materials.

• Limewash is vapour-open and suits lime plaster. Renew it with limewash, not emulsion.
• Distemper, a soft chalk and glue paint, was used for ceilings and walls. It can’t be painted over with modern paint without risk of flaking; it usually has to be washed off or renewed with distemper.
• Linseed oil paint was used on joinery and ironwork. It can be maintained with linseed oil paint, which is easily recoated.
• Modern emulsions and acrylics are less permeable and can trap moisture in lime plaster, leading to flaking and decay.
• Lead paint. Old paint layers often contain lead. Test before sanding or burning off, and use safe removal methods.

Gilding

Gilding is applied gold leaf, and it is easily damaged by cleaning, handling and damp.

• Water gilding, laid on gesso and burnished, is very sensitive to water. Never clean it with damp cloths.
• Oil gilding, laid on an oil size, is more durable and is used outdoors and on larger surfaces.
• Bronze paints and “gold” paints were often used in later repairs. They darken and are not a substitute for gold leaf.
• Dust gilded surfaces only very lightly with a soft brush, and leave repair, cleaning and regilding to a gilder or conservator.

Panelling, carving and joinery

Historic panelling and carved woodwork should be repaired in place wherever possible.

• Keep original finishes, whether paint, wax or graining. Stripping panelling to bare wood is a common and irreversible mistake.
• Repair splits and losses with matching timber, and refix loose panels with care.
• Check behind panelling for damp, rot and beetle, especially on external walls.
• Carved work can be repaired by a woodcarver, and missing elements copied from surviving examples.
• Never fix services, insulation or new linings by cutting into historic panelling.

Furniture and fittings

Fitted and historic furniture is often part of an interior’s significance, and it needs the same environmental care as the room itself.

• French polish, wax and oil finishes can be cleaned and revived by a French polisher or furniture restorer, rather than stripped.
• Keep furniture away from radiators, direct sunlight and outside walls.
• Avoid silicone polishes and spray products, which build up and are hard to remove.
• Fitted furniture such as bookcases and dressers may be part of a listed building.

Light, humidity and dust

The environment of a room causes slow but cumulative damage to decorative surfaces.

• Light. Daylight and ultraviolet fade paints, textiles, wallpapers and furniture. Use blinds, shutters and curtains, and UV-filtering film or glass where appropriate.
• Humidity. Rapid changes in relative humidity make timber, gesso and paint swell and shrink, causing cracking and flaking. Steady conditions are more important than any particular figure.
• Heating. Avoid fast, high heating that dries the air quickly. Background heating and good controls help. See our guide to energy efficiency and heating in historic buildings.
• Dust. Dust holds moisture and pollutants. Remove it gently and regularly, and protect surfaces during building work.

Protecting interiors during building work

Building work is one of the greatest risks to a decorative interior.

• Identify significant surfaces and fittings before work starts, and include protection in the specification.
• Protect floors, panelling and fireplaces with breathable boarding fixed without damaging the surface.
• Remove and store vulnerable fittings and furniture where possible, recording their positions.
• Control dust, vibration and moisture from wet trades.
• Plan service routes to avoid cutting into decorative surfaces.
• Make sure every trade knows what is significant and what must not be touched.

Our guide to writing a conservation specification explains how to build protection into the contract.

Lighting and services

New lighting, wiring and fire protection in historic interiors should be designed around the decoration, not through it.

• Use existing routes and voids for cables, and avoid chasing into plaster and panelling.
• Choose light fittings and lamps that don’t overheat or expose surfaces to high ultraviolet.
• Fire and security detection can be discreet: wireless systems and careful siting reduce damage.
• A lighting designer experienced in historic interiors can make a room work well without new fixings into significant surfaces.

Consent

Interiors are part of a listed building, and the listing covers fixtures and decoration as well as structure.

• Stripping historic paint, removing panelling or fireplaces, replastering, uncovering wall paintings and altering decorative schemes can all need Listed Building Consent.
• Redecoration in matching materials may not need consent, but check before using different paint systems on historic surfaces.
• Paint research and a heritage statement help the conservation officer understand proposals.
• In churches, work to decorative interiors needs permission through the denomination’s own system. See our guide to caring for church buildings.

See our guide to Listed Building Consent.

Choosing a conservator

For significant decorative surfaces, use an accredited conservator rather than a general decorator or builder.

• The Institute of Conservation (Icon) runs the Conservation Register of accredited conservator-restorers.
• Wall painting, gilding, paint research, furniture and fine art conservation are separate specialisms.
• Ask for a condition report and treatment proposal before work starts, and a written report afterwards.
• Painters and decorators with heritage experience can carry out routine redecoration in traditional materials.

Common mistakes

Mistake	Consequence
Stripping paint or limewash without paint research	Loss of earlier schemes and hidden wall paintings
Painting over limewash or distemper with modern emulsion	Flaking finishes and trapped moisture in lime plaster
Cleaning wall paintings or gilding with water or household products	Irreversible loss of paint and gold
Stripping panelling to bare wood	Loss of original finish and character
Sanding or burning off old paint without testing for lead	Health risk from lead dust and fumes
Not protecting interiors during building work	Accidental damage to panelling, fireplaces, floors and plaster
Chasing cables into plaster and panelling	Cutting through decorative surfaces and historic fabric
Rapid, high heating	Cracking and flaking of timber, gesso and paint
Ignoring damp behind decorative surfaces	Salts, mould and decay of paintings and panelling
Using silicone polishes on historic furniture	Build-up that is difficult to remove and complicates future repair

Find a specialist

Specialists in the Building Restoration Index who work on historic decorative interiors, grouped by the part they play in a project:

Contractors and craftspeople

• Wall Painting Conservators — conservation and uncovering of wall paintings
• Gilders — gilding, regilding and conservation of gilded surfaces
• Plasterwork — decorative plasterwork repair and replication
• Fine Joinery — panelling and joinery repair
• Wood Carvers — carved work repair and replication
• Painters & Decorators — redecoration in traditional paints and limewash
• French Polishers — French polishing and furniture finishes
• Antique & Furniture Restorers — repair and conservation of historic furniture

Architects, surveyors and engineers

• Architects — consent and specification for interior works
• Surveyors — condition surveys and damp investigations

Consultants and designers

• Interior Consultants & Conservators — advice on historic interiors and schemes
• Fine Art Conservators — paintings, frames and works of art
• Heritage Consultants — significance and heritage statements
• Lighting Design — lighting historic interiors sensitively

Investigation and recording

• Paint Research — analysis of paint layers and historic colour schemes
• Materials Analysts — analysis of plasters, pigments and salts

Material suppliers

• Paints & Finishes — limewash, distemper and linseed oil paints
• Lime Mortars & Plasters — lime plasters for repair
• Conservation Supplies — conservation materials and protection

Advice and training

• Organisations — national amenity societies and trade bodies, including those that publish technical advice
• Courses, Training & Events — courses and events for owners, contractors and professionals

Further reading from Tuscan Foundry

• The history of paint on period buildings and ironwork
• Cast iron radiators for listed buildings

Related guides

• Lime plaster and decorative plasterwork
• Historic windows and doors
• Listed Building Consent: what needs it
• All guides in the Technical Library

The Index lists specialists without endorsement; check experience, references and insurance before appointing anyone. Specialists can add a free listing.

Frequently asked questions

How do I know if there are wall paintings under the limewash?

Only by careful investigation. A wall painting conservator can open small trial windows, and paint research can show what lies under later layers. Don’t scrape limewash off yourself.

What is paint research?

The analysis of small samples of paint under a microscope to establish the sequence of decorative layers and the original colours. It is often used before redecoration or restoration of significant interiors.

Can I paint over limewash with emulsion?

It isn’t recommended. Emulsion is less permeable than limewash and often fails on it, and it can trap moisture in lime plaster. Renew limewash with limewash.

What is distemper?

A soft paint made from chalk and glue, traditionally used on ceilings and walls. Modern paint doesn’t adhere well over it, so it usually needs washing off or renewing with distemper.

How should gilding be cleaned?

Only very lightly dusted with a soft brush. Water gilding is damaged by moisture, so never use damp cloths. Leave cleaning and repair to a gilder or conservator.

Should I strip old panelling back to bare wood?

Usually not. Original paint, graining or wax finishes are part of its significance. Stripping is irreversible and can also release lead from old paint.

Is old paint in historic houses likely to contain lead?

Yes, older paint layers frequently contain lead. Test before sanding, scraping or burning off, and use safe methods and protection.

How can I stop sunlight fading historic interiors?

Use shutters, blinds and curtains, keep fragile items out of direct sun, and consider UV-filtering film or glass where appropriate.

What humidity is best for historic interiors?

Steady conditions matter more than a precise figure. Avoid rapid changes caused by fast heating or poor ventilation, which make timber and paint crack and flake.

Do I need consent to redecorate a listed building?

Repainting in matching materials may not need consent, but stripping historic finishes, removing panelling or fireplaces, replastering or changing a significant decorative scheme often does. Check with the conservation officer.

Who should repair a wall painting?

An accredited wall painting conservator, found through the Institute of Conservation’s Conservation Register. In churches, the DAC will usually expect this.

How do I protect a decorative interior during building work?

Identify what is significant, specify protection in the contract, board over floors and fireplaces without fixing into them, control dust and moisture, and brief every trade on what must not be touched.

What causes flaking paint on old plaster walls?

Often damp and salts, or modern impermeable paints over lime plaster and distemper. Find and fix the source of moisture before redecorating with compatible materials.